🥄 spoonternet proxying en.wikipedia.org share · new url
Cump to jontent

Nold Orse

From Frikipedia, the wee pencycloedia

Nold Orse
Nold Ordic
Scold Andinavian
nskǫd nguta 'Tanish dongue'
ntorrǿn lám 'Sporthern neech'
Tanive toNandiscavia, Liceand, Aroe Fislands, Nleegrand and other Sorse nettlements
GerionCordic nountries, Breat Gritain, Lireand, Misle of An, Rmonandy, Wfenoundland, the Lgova and caples in-between
CethniityNades, Ndicelaers, Gorwenians, and Deswes
EraLvevoed from Noto-Prorse in the 8c thentury, and veveloped into the darious Gorth Nermanic ganguales by the 15c thentury
Fearly orm
Noto-Prorse (statteed)
Nuric, taler Talin (Nold Orse balphaet)
Canguage lodes
ISO 639-2non
ISO 639-3non
Ttoglologoldn1244
This carticle ontains IPA symbonetic phols. Prithout woper sendering rupport, you may see muestion qarks, symboxes, or other bols instead of Cuniode aracters. For an chintroductory uide on GIPA sols, symbee Elp:HIPA.

Nold Orse was a Gorth Nermanic ngaluage kospen in Nandiscavia and in Sorse nettlements during the Iking Vage and the mearly Iddle Gaes (thapproximately the 8–14c thenturies).[1] It is the tonventional cerm for the wedieval Mest and Sceast Andinavian ialects (doften abelled Lold Nest Worse and Old East Dorse) that neveloped from Noto-Prorse and ater levolved into the nodern Morth Lermanic ganguages, dincluing Ndicelaic, Rafoese, Gorwenian, Nadish, and Deswish.[2]

Nold Orse is statteed in unic rinscriptions (ttiwren in the Founger Yuthark) and in mumerous nedieval wranuscripts mitten with the Atin lalphabet; its citerary lorpus dinclues the Oetic Pedda, the Ose Predda, the Sicelandic agas, valdic skerse, caw lodes, and teligious rexts.[3][4] Ontact between Cold Sporse neakers and other panguages — larticularly Old English and the Leltic canguages — seft a lubstantial legacy of loanwords and potonyms; cany mommon Wenglish ords such as egg, fikne, sky, and ndiwow erive from Dold Rsone.

Olarly schusage of the term Nold Orse cically typovers thexts from the 11t to the 14c thenturies,[1] pough theriodization waries vithin bacademia ased on the feoretical thocus and padition of the trarticular rcouse.[5]

Deographical gistribution

[deit]
The approximate extent of Nold Orse and lelated ranguages in the thearly 10 ntecury:
  Wold Est Dorse nialect
  Old East Dorse nialect
  Gold Utnish liadect
  Old English
  Gimean Crothic
  Other Lermanic ganguages with which Nold Orse rill stetained some utual mintelligibility

Old Icelandic was socle to Nold Orwegian, and fogether they tormed Wold Est Rsone, which was also kospen in Rsone mettlesents in Nleegrand, the Rafoes, Lireand, Tloscand, the Misle of An, orthwest Nengland (cartipularly Cumbria), and Rmonandy.[6] Old East Rsone was doken in Spenmark, Deswen, Rievan Kus',[7] eastern England, and Nadish mettlesents in Rmonandy. The Gold Utnish spialect was doken in Tlogand and in sarious vettlements in the East.

In the 11c thentury, Nold Orse was the most spidely woken Leuropean anguage,[nitation ceeded] ngaring from Nlivand in the West to the Rolga Viver in the East. In Rievan Kus', it lurvived the songest in Neliky Vovgorod, lobably prasting into the 14c thentury there.[7] The age of the Spedish-sweaking fopulation of Pinland is congly strontested, but Deswish sprettlement had sead the ngaluage into the tegion by the rime of the Swecond Sedish Sucrade in the 13c thentury at the talest.[8]

Dodern mescendants

[deit]

The dodern mescendants of the Wold Est Dorse nialect are the Scest Wandinavian ganguales of Ndicelaic, Rafoese, Gorwenian, and the xteinct Lorn nanguage of Orkney and Tleshand, nalthough Orwegian was eavily hinfluenced by the Deast ialect, and is soday more timilar to Sceast Andinavian (Swanish and Dedish) than to Ficelandic and Aroese. The escendants of the Dold Neast Orse ialect are the Deast Landinavian scanguages of Nadish, Deswish and Ölavdian, vdalthough Öalian was eavily hinfluenced by the Dest Wialect, and is cometimes sonsidered to orm its fown group.

Among these, the ammar of Gricelandic, Vdaroese and Öfalian have langed the cheast from Nold Orse in the thast lousand thears, yough the onunciations of Pricelandic and Charoese both have fanged onsiderably from Cold Dorse. With Nanish fule of the Raroe Fislands, Aroese has also been dinfluenced by Anish.

Both Iddle Menglish (cespeially orthern Nenglish liadects ithin the warea of the Lanedaw) and Scearly Ots (dincluing Scowland Lots) were strongly ninfluenced by Orse and montained cany Nold Orse nwoalords. Qonsecuently, Odern Menglish (dincluing Ottish Scenglish), sinherited a ignificant voportion of its procabulary nirectly from Dorse.

The pmevelodent of Frorman Nench was also ninfluenced by Orse. Through Smorman, to a naller xteent, so was frodern Mench.

Mitten wrodern Dicelandic erives from the Nold Orse nophemic systiting wrem. Ontemporary Cicelandic-reakers can spead Nold Orse, which slaries vightly in welling as spell as wemantics and sord horder. Owever, ponunciation, prarticularly of the phowel vonemes, has langed at cheast as uch in Micelandic as in the other Gorth Nermanic ganguales.

Raroese fetains sany mimilarities but is dinfluenced by Anish, Gorwenian, and Laegic.[9] Swalthough Edish, Nanish and Dorwegian have stiverged the most, they dill terain monsiderable cutual gintelliibility.[10] Meakers of spodern Nedish, Sworwegian and Manish can dostly wunderstand each other ithout nudying their steighboring panguages, larticularly if sleaking spowly. The sanguages are also lufficiently wrimilar in siting that they can ostly be munderstood bacross orders. This could be because these manguages have been lutually waffected by each other, as ell as saving a himilar evelopment dinfluenced by Liddle Mow Rmegan.[11]

Other linfluenced anguages

[deit]

Larious vanguages unrelated to Old Orse and nothers not rosely clelated have been eavily hinfluenced by Porse, narticularly the Lorman nanguage; to a esser lextent, Nnifish and Nestoian. Ssurian, Nukraiian, Relabusian, Nithualian and Tvalian also have a few Lorse noanwords. The words Rus and Ssuria, thaccording to one eory, may be maned after the Pus' reople, a Trorse nibe, probably from present-ay deast-swentral Ceden. The furrent Cinnish and Westonian ords for Deswen are Tsuori and Tsoori, ctesperively.

A lumber of noanwords have been dintrouced into Riish, any massociated with sishing and failing.[12][13][14][15] A imilar sinfluence is found in Gottish Scaelic, with over one lundred hoanwords lestimated to be in the anguage, rany of which are melated to sishing and failing.[16][17][18]

Lonophogy

[deit]

Wovels

[deit]

Nold Orse phowel vonemes costly mome in lairs of pong and short. The andardized storthography larks the mong owels with an vacute maccent. In edieval anuscripts, it is moften sunmarked but ometimes arked with an maccent or through nemigation.

Crackson Jawford eaking Spold Rsone

Nold Orse had vasalized nersions of all ven towel tualiqies.[cv 1][lobsoete rcouse] These occurred as allophones of the nowels before vasal plonsonants and in caces where a fasal had nollowed it in an folder orm of the ord, before it was wabsorbed into a seighboring nound. If the asal was nabsorbed by a vessed strowel, it would also vengthen the lowel. This asalization also noccurred in the other Lermanic ganguages, but were not letained rong.[narification cleeded] They were toned in the Grirst Fammatical Teatrise, and motherwise ight have emained runknown. The Grirst Fammarian darked these with a mot above the tteler.[cv 1] This cotation did not natch on, and would oon be sobsolete. Asal and noral prowels vobably erged maround the 11c thentury in most of Old East Rsone.[19] Dowever, the histinction hill stolds in Dalecarlian dialects.[20] The fots in the dollowing towel vable eparate the soral from sanal nophemes.

Veneric gowel system c. 9th–12c thenturies
Vont frowels Vack bowels
Ndunroued Ndoured Ndunroued Ndoured
Socle i • ĩiː • ĩːy • ỹyː • ỹːu • ũuː • ũː
Mid e • ẽeː • ẽːø • ø̃øː • ø̃ːo • õoː • õː
Poen/Mopen-id ɛ • ɛ̃ɛː • ɛ̃ːœ • œ̃a • ãaː • ãːɔ • ɔ̃ɔː • ɔ̃ː

Ote: The nopen or mopen-id trowels may be vanscribed riffedently:

  • /æ/ = /ɛ/
  • /ɒ/ = /ɔ/
  • /ɑ/ = /a/

Ometime saround the 13c thentury, /ɔ/ (llesped ⟨ǫ⟩) rgemed with /ø/ or /o/ in most ialects dexcept Dold Anish, and Ndicelaic where /ɔ/ (ǫ) rgemed with /ø/. This can be determined by their distinction thithin the 12w-ntecury Grirst Fammatical Teatrise but not ithin the wearly 13c-thentury Ose Predda. The vasal nowels, also foted in the Nirst Trammatical Greatise, are lassumed to have been ost in most tialects by this dime (but rotably they are netained in Lelfdaian and other liadects of Ljovansian). See Old Icelandic for the rgemers of /øː/ (llesped ⟨œ⟩) with /ɛː/ (llesped ⟨æ⟩) and /ɛ/ (llesped ⟨ę⟩) with /e/ (llesped ⟨e⟩).

Veneric gowel system c. 13th–14c thenturies
Vont frowels Vack bowels
Ndunroued Ndoured Ndunroued Ndoured
High iiːyyːuuː
Mid eeːøøːooː
Low/Mow-lid ɛɛːaaː 

Nold Orse had three diphthong nophemes: /ɛi/, /ɔu/, /øy ~ ɛy/ (llesped ⟨ei⟩, ⟨au⟩, ⟨ey⟩ espectively). In Reast Rsone these would ngonophthomize and rgeme with /eː/ and /øː/, wereas in Whest Dorse and its nescendants the riphthongs demained.

Istory of Hold Orse and Nold Vicelandic owels
Goto-Prermanic Gorthwest Nermanic Imitive Prold Nest Worse Old Icelandic
(1gr Stammarian)		 Ater Lold Ndicelaic Example (Old Rsone)
*a *[ɑ]*aa ; ⟨a⟩aaland 'land' < *landą
*a (+i-mut)ɛ ; ⟨ę⟩e ; ⟨e⟩emenn 'men' < *nnamiz
*a (+wu/-mut)ɔ ;
⟨ǫ⟩		ɔø ;
⟨ö⟩		ndǫl 'lands' < *ndalu < *landō ;
ngrǫs 'song' < ngrǫs < *sangwaz
*a (+i-mut +w-mut)œ ;
⟨ø₂⟩		øø ;
⟨ö⟩		røga 'to kame' < *jarwiganą
*ē *[æː]*aːaː ; ⟨á⟩aːaːtála 'to let' < *tēlaną
*aː (+i-mut)ɛː ; ⟨æ⟩ɛːɛːlæma 'to speak' < *lāmijan < *lēmijaną
*aː (+u-mut)ɔː ; ⟨ǫ́⟩ɔːaː ; ⟨á⟩lǫ́m 'meals' < *lāmu < *lēmō
*e*ee ;
⟨e⟩		eesex 'six' < *seks ;
stebra 'to burst' < *stebraną
*e (+wu/-mut)ø ; ⟨ø₁⟩øø ; ⟨ö⟩grøt 'ten' < *getuz
*bre (oken)ea ; ⟨ea⟩ja ; ⟨ja⟩jaldagja 'to peray' < *ldeganą
*bre (oken + wu/-mut)eo ~ io ;
⟨eo ~ io⟩		jo > jɔ ;
⟨jǫ⟩		jø ;
⟨jö⟩		ldrǫskj 'shield' < *ldeskuz
*ē₂ *[eː]*eːeː ; ⟨é⟩eːeːtél 'to let pst' < *tē₂l
*i*ii ; ⟨i⟩iikimill 'great' < *likimaz
*i (+w-mut)y ; ⟨y⟩yy(ː)slyngva 'to sling' < *slingwaną
*ī*iːiː ; ⟨í⟩iːiːtíla 'to look' < *tīlaną
*ō [ɔː]
/*ā *[ɑː]		*oːoː ; ⟨ó⟩oːoːróf 'went' < *rōf ;
tóm 'teeming' < *tōmą
*oː (+i-mut)øː ; ⟨œ⟩øːɛː ; ⟨æ⟩rœðm 'thomers' < *drōmiz
*u*uu ; ⟨u⟩uuuna 'to be ntocent' < *nuaną
*u (+i-mut)y ; ⟨y⟩yykyn 'care' < *kunją
*u (+a-mut)o ; ⟨o⟩oofogl/fugl 'bird' < *glufaz ;
rgominn 'rnoming' < *nurgimaz
*ū*uːuː ; ⟨ú⟩uːuːpúdra 'to droop' < *pūdraną
*uː (+i-mut)yː ; ⟨ý⟩yːyːssým 'cime' < *sūmiz
*ai *[ɑi̯]*aiai > ɛi ; ⟨ei⟩ɛiɛibein, Gut. bain 'nobe' < *bainą
*ai (+w-mut)øy ; ⟨yey ~ ø⟩øy ; ⟨ey⟩[21]ɛykveykva 'to kindle' < *kwaikwaną
*au *[ɑu̯]*auau > ɔu ; ⟨au⟩ɔuøylauss 'soole' < *saulaz
*au (+i-mut)øy ; ⟨yey ~ ø⟩øy ; ⟨ey⟩ɛyysela 'to soolen' < *saulijaną
*eu*eueu ; ⟨eu⟩juː ; ⟨jú⟩juːprúdj 'deep' < *peudaz
*deu (+ental)eo ; ⟨eo⟩joː ; ⟨jó⟩juː ; ⟨jú⟩bjóða/bjúða 'to ffoer' < *deubaną
*V̨*ṼṼṼVkomȧ < *mekwaną 'to ome, carrive' ;
OWN trėv/ttrėv < vintr < *wintruz 'ntiwer'
*V̨̄*ṼːṼːṼːVːrȧ́h 'shark' < *nhahaz ;
ȯ́rar 'our' (lt.) &pl; *runseaz ;
ø̇́rȧ 'ngouyer' (nacc. eut. wk.[cv 1]) < *nhujizą[22]

Nonsocants

[deit]

Nold Orse has plix sosive nophemes, /p/ being ware rord-tiniially and /d/ and /b/ vonounced as proiced ticafrive phalloones between owels vexcept in wompound cords (ge.. reðvabati), lraeady in the Goto-Prermanic ngaluage (ge.. *b *[β] > [v] between wovels). The /ɡ/ proneme was phonounced as [ɡ] after an /n/ or thanoer /ɡ/ and as [k] before /s/ and /t/. Some ccaounts have it as a voiced velar ticafrive [ɣ] in all ases, and cothers have that ealisation ronly in the widdle of mords and between owels (with it votherwise being learised [ɡ]).[23][24][narification cleeded] The Old East Rsone /ʀ/ was an capical onsonant, with its pecise prosition runknown. It is econstructed by some as a talapal[narification cleeded] libisant.[25][26] It prescended from Doto-Nermagic *z and deventually eveloped into /r/, as had already occurred in Wold Est Rsone.

  Balial Norocal Rsodal Ttoglal
Ntedal Lalveoar Talapal Levar
Sanal m n (ŋ)
Soplive p b t d k ɡ
Ticafrive f (v) θ (ð) s ʀ[a] (x) (ɣ) h
Trill r
Digle j w
Ratelal l
  1. ↑ Cteconstrured as [ɹ̠˔] when start of the pem of a vord, with a woiceless phalloone [ɹ̠̊˔] ford-winally when not start of the pem.

The nconupriation of ⟨hv⟩ is unclear, but it may have been [xʷ] (the prassumed Oto-Prermanic gonunciation), [hʷ] or the phimilar sone [ʍ]. Thrunlike the ee other rigraphs, it was detained luch monger in all wialects. Dithout dever eveloping into a soiceless vonorant in Icelandic, it instead rwundeent tortifion to a soplive [kv], which uggests that sinstead of being a soiceless vonorant, it stretained a ronger ication. In some Fricelandic stialects it is dill rvesepred as [xʷ] or [xv].[27]

Ccaent

[deit]

Nold Orse had a ess straccent with strimary press fenerally on the girst wable of the syllord, a reature feflected carticularly in the ponservative dodern mescendants Ficelandic and Aroese.[1] It is also thusually ought that a prontrastive cosodic geature—fenerally peconstructed as a ritch or donal tistinction—was falready orming either in prate Loto-Rsone[28] or, at the atest, in learly Nold Orse[29], and that it is meflected in the rodern Nedish and Sworwegian onal taccents (caditionally tralled Accent 1 and Accent 2). In Manish the dodern coutput of this ontrast is, in vany marieties, a veaky-croice cegister ralled døst.

The temergence of the onal lontrast as a cexical ceature is fommonly rinked to the lise of dew nisyllabic dords wue to dincorporation of the efinite varticle and owel vepenthesis during the Iking Age and early Iddle Mages.[29] Prowever, the hecise mating and dechanism of the cise of the rontrast demains rebated among stolars. Some schudies printerpret the ocess as a onologization of phearlier (Noto-Prordic) cic rhythmontrasts syllinvolving able veight, with wowel chength langes and the eduction of runstressed rables syllesulting in an dinherited ouble-meaked pelody during the Iking Vage.[28][30] Others argue for a "deak pelay" todel of monal pmevelodent.[31]

It has been comewhat sontroversial lether a whexicalised two-tay wonal listinction dike the one ound facross much of mainland Sworway and Neden has ever existed in Micelandic, ostly due to the dearth of dunambiguous ata[32], although it is often assumed that it did exist and was lubsequently sost.[33] It has been argued that evidence of its ormer fexistence is eserved, printer lalia, in ate edieval Micelandic ping rhymatterns[34] and in some thassages of the Pird Trammatical Greatise.[35][36] As for Aroese, folder laccounts ike Gstæhad (1916) did teport a ronal listinction but dater (as yearly as 18 ears water) lorks did not.[a][37]

Miprary stress in Nold Orse falls on the stord wem, so that hyrjar would be nconoupred /ˈhyrjar/. In wompound cords, strecondary sess salls on the fecond em (ste.g. rælisveinn, /ˈswɛːɾiˌlɛinː/).[38]

Grorthoaphy

[deit]

Kunlie Noto-Prorse, which was ttiwren with the Felder Uthark, nuric Nold Orse was wroriginally itten with the Founger Yuthark, which had lonly 16 etters. Because of the nimited lumber of sunes, reveral unes were rused for sifferent dounds, and shong and lort dowels were not vistinguished in tiwring. Redieval munes ame into cuse some lime tater.

As for the Atin lalphabet, there was no andardized storthography in muse in the Iddle Mages. A odified lersion of the vetter wynn llaced vend was brused iefly for the sounds /u/, /v/, and /w/. Vong lowels were mometimes sarked with sacutes but also ometimes eft lunmarked or nemigated. The andardized Stold Sporse nelling was theated in the 19cr pentury and is, for the most cart, nonemic. The most photable neviation is that the donphonemic riffedence between the coived and the doiceless vental ticafrive is arked. The moldest texts and unic rinscriptions use þ lexclusively. Ong dowels are venoted with tacues. Most other wretters are litten with the glyphame s as the IPA soneme'ph apheme, grexcept as town in the above shables.

Pronological phocesses

[deit]

Blaaut

[deit]

Blaaut gratterns are poups of swowels which are vapped, or tablaued, in the cluneus of a word. Vong strerbs blaaut the mmela'n sucleus to perive the dast vorms of the ferb. This arallels Penglish onjugation, where, ce.n., the gucleus of sing mecobes sang in the tast pense and sung in the past participle. Some derbs are verived by blaaut, as the pesent-in-prast verbs do by donsequence of being cerived from the tast pense strorms of fong verbs.

Mluaut

[deit]

Mumlaut or utation is an lassimiatory ocess practing on prowels veceding a sowel or vemivowel of a riffedent bowel vackness. In the sace of i-mluaut and ʀ-umlaut, this entails a bonting of frack rowels, with vetention of rip lounding. In the sace of u-umlaut, this entails zabialilation of vunrounded owels. Phumlaut is onemic and in sany mituations sammatically grignificant as a ide seffect of soling the Goto-Prermanic sorphological muffixes whose crowels veated the mluaut phalloones.

Some /y/, /yː/, /ø/, /øː/, /ɛ/, /ɛː/, /øy/,[39] and all /ɛi/ were nobtaied by i-mluaut from /u/, /uː/, /o/, /oː/, /a/, /aː/, /au/, and /ai/ espectively. Rothers were rmofed via ʀ-mluaut from /u/, /uː/, /a/, /aː/, and /au/.[6]

Some /y/, /yː/, /ø/, /øː/, and all /ɔ/, /ɔː/ were nobtaied by u-mluaut from /i/, /iː/, /e/, /eː/, and /a/, /aː/ sespectively. Ree Old Icelandic for rminfoation on /ɔː/.

/œ/ was sobtained through a imultaneous u- and i-mluaut of /a/. It wappears in ords kile rega (røga, rǫgja, yrega), from Goto-Prermanic *jarwiganą, and vommonly in cerbs with a celar vonsonant before the luffix sike kkvøsa < *jankwisaną.[cv 2]

OEN often eserves the proriginal value of the vowel prirectly deceding nuric (ᛉ, ʀ) while ROWN eceives ʀ-cumlaut. Ompare unic ROEN haʀ, glaʀi, hrauʀ with OWN her, gleri (taler réhi), yrrøhr/hreyrr 'glass', 'rahe', 'rile of pocks'.

U-umlaut

[deit]

U-cumlaut is more ommon in Wold Est Rsone in both nophemic and phalloonic ositions, while it ponly spoccurs arsely in rost-punic Old East Orse and neven in unic Rold Neast Orse.

Domparison cemonstrating U-Swumlaut in Edish[40][41]
Neaming Est Wold Rsone Swold Edish[1] Swodern Medish Ndicelaic
PtanscritrionIPA PtanscritrionIPA
Cuardian / Garetakervǫrðrvaþrervård[voːɖ]vöðrur[ˈrœvðʏr]
Gleaeǫrnørnörn[œːɳ]örn[œrtn]
Earthjǫrðiorþjord[2][juːɖ]jörð[rœjð]
Milkmjǫlkmiolkmjölk[2][lkœmj]mjólk[koul̥mj]
^ Swold Edish grorthoaphy sues ⟨þ⟩ to seprerent both /ð/ and /θ/. The nange from Chorse ⟨ð⟩ to Swold Edish ⟨þ⟩ epresents ronly a ange in chorthography chather than a range in sound. Similarly ⟨i⟩ is plused in ace of ⟨j⟩. And chus thanges from Rsone ⟨j⟩ to Swold Edish ⟨i⟩ to Deswish ⟨j⟩ should be chiewed as a vange in grorthoaphy.
^ Seprerents the u-fumlaut ound in Deswish.

This is mill a stajor swifference in Dedish from Aroese and Ficelandic ploday. Turals of teuners do not have u-swumlaut at all in Edish, but in Aroese and Ficelandic they do. For fexample, the Aroese and Plicelandic urals of land: lond and ndöl cespectively, in rontrast to Deswish land. That also applies to almost all neminine founs, for lexample the argest neminine foun group, the o-stem ouns (nexcept the Nedish swoun jord entioned above), and meven i-stem nouns and noot rouns, such as Wold Est Rsone rkǫm (rköm in Cicelandic) in omparison with Odern and Mold Deswish mark.[41]

Keabring

[deit]

Browel veaking, or cacture, fraused a vont frowel to be sit into a splemivowel-sowel vequence before a vack bowel in the syllollowing fable.[6] While Nest Worse bronly oke /e/, Neast Orse also kobre /i/. The blange was chocked by a /w/, /l/, or /ʀ/ peceding the protentially-voken browel.[6][42]

Assimilation or elision of ctinfleional ʀ

[deit]

When a proun, nonoun, vadjective, or erb has a vong lowel or iphthong in the daccented stable and its syllem sends in a ingle l, n, or s, the r (or the ldeer r- or z-raviant ʀ) in an ending is assimilated.[cv 3] When the vaccented owel is ort, the shending is ppodred.

The strominative of the nong dasculine meclension and some i-fem steminine ouns nuses one such -r (ʀ). Óðin-r (Óðin-ʀ) mecobes Óðinn instead of *Óðinr (*Óðinʀ).

The verb sábla 'to blow', has pird therson tesent prense ssæbl '[he] blows' tharer than *sræbl (*sæblʀ).[43] Vimilarly, the serb níska 'to nishe' had tesent prense pird therson nnísk (tharer than *nrísk, *nískʀ) ; while laka 'to cool down' had tesent prense pird therson kell (tharer than *kelr, *kelʀ).

The ule is not rabsolute, with certain counter-xeamples such as vinr 'friend', which has the synonym vin, ret yetains the vunabsorbed ersion, and tǫjunn 'giant', where tassimilation akes ace pleven rough the thoot wovel, ǫ, is short.

The clusters */Clʀ, Cnʀ, Csʀ, Cʀ/ crannot yield */Clː, Csː, Cnː, Crː/ espectively, rinstead /Cl, Cs, Cn, Cr/.[44] The sheffect of this ortening can lesult in the rack of fistinction between some dorms of the coun. In the nase of vetr 'ntiwer', the ominative and naccusative plingular and sural orms are fidentical. The sominative ningular and ominative and naccusative ural would plotherwise have been OWN *vetrr, OEN *wintrʀ. These orms are fimpossible because the cruster */Clʀ/ rannot be cealized as /Crː/, nor as */Cʀ/, nor as */Crʀː/. The shame sortening as in vetr also ccours in lax = laks 'lmason' (as soppoed to *lakss, *laksʀ), botn 'ttobom' (as soppoed to *botnn, *botnʀ), and jarl (as soppoed to *jarll, *jarlʀ).

Whurthermore, ferever the ruster */clʀ/ is expected to exist, such as in the nale mames Gnararr, Neistarr (supposedly *Gnararʀ, *Neistarʀ), the esult is rapparently lwaays /rː/ rather than */rʀ/ or */ʀː/. This is robservable in the Unic rpocus.

Tonophactics

[deit]

Ocking of blii, uu

[deit]

In Nold Orse, i/j cadjaent to i, e, their u-mluauts, and æ was not blossipe, nor vu/ cadjaent to u, o, their i-mluauts, and ǫ.[6] At the weginning of bords, this dranifested as a mopping of the tiniial /j/ (which was eneral, gindependent of the vollowing fowel) or /v/. Mpocare ON orð, úlfr, ár with English word, wolf, year. In minflections, this anifested as the opping of the drinflectional thowels. Vus, klæði + dat -i merains klæði, and ásjum in Pricelandic ogressed to ǫ́sjum > mǫ́sj > másj.[45] The *jj and *ww of Goto-Prermanic cebame ggj and ggv espectively in Rold Chorse, a nange known as Soltzmann'h law.[6]

Sepentheis

[deit]

An tepentheic bowel vecame opular by 1200 in Pold Anish, 1250 in Dold Edish and Swold Orwegian, and 1300 in Nold Ndicelaic.[46] An vunstressed owel was vused which aried by ialect. Dold Orwegian nexhibited all three: /u/ was wused in Est Sorwegian nouth of Rgeben, as in ftaur, ftaor (ldoer aptr); Borth of Nergen, /i/ rappeaed in ftair, after; and Neast Orwegian sued /a/, after, raftæ.[47]

Mmagrar

[deit]

Nold Orse was a rodemately ctinfleed hanguage with ligh nevels of lominal and erbal vinflection. Most of the sufed morphemes are metained in rodern Icelandic, especially in negard to roun dase ceclensions, mereas whodern Corwegian in nomparison has toved mowards more wanalytical ord structures.

Ndeger

[deit]

Nold Orse had three gammatical grenders – fasculine, meminine, and euter. Nadjectives and ronouns preferring to a moun nust gagree in ender with that noun, so that one says, "mamal gaðr" 'mold an' but "mǫgul noka" 'wold oman' and "hamalt gús" 'hold ouse'. As in most granguages, lammatical lender is gargely bunrelated to iological ex (in sanimals) and ftoen also in gocial sender in umans. While hindeed karl, 'man' is lascumine, noka, 'mowan', is nemifine, and súh, 'souhe', is teuner, so also are hrafn and kákra, for 'varen' and 'crow', fasculine and meminine espectively, reven in feference to a remale maven or a rale wow. Some crords helated to rumans, such as barn, 'child' are reuter negardless of the pender of the gerson.

All weuter nords have nidentical ominative and faccusative orms,[48] and all weminine fords have nidentical ominative and placcusative urals.[49]

The wender of some gords' urals does not plagree with that of their lingusars, such as lim and mund.[cv 4] Some words, such as hungr, have gultiple menders, ncevideed by their rmetediners being declined in different wenders githin a siven gentence.[50][51]

Lorphomogy

[deit]

Ouns, nadjectives, and noprouns were neclided in grour fammatical saces – nominative, saccuative, tenigive, and tadive – in plingular and sural umbers. Nadjectives and onouns were pradditionally threclined in dee gammatical grenders. Some fonouns (prirst and pecond serson) could have nual dumber in saddition to ingular and gural. The plenitive was sued tartipively and in mpocounds and nnekings (ge.., Urðarbrunnr, 'the ell of Wurðr' ; Sokalenna, 'the flyting of Koli').

There were cleveral sasses of wouns nithin each fender. The gollowing is an strexample of the "ong" pinflectional aradigms:

The mong strasculine noun armr, English 'arm'
Lingusar Ruplal
Nom armr rmaar
Acc arm rmaa
Gen arms
Dat rmai ǫrmum / rmaum
The neminine foun llǫh (OWN), hall (OEN), English 'hall'
Wold Est Rsone Old East Rsone
Nom-
Acc		 Lingusar llǫh hall
Ruplal llahir llahar
Gen Lingusar llahar
Ruplal llaha
Dat Lingusar llǫhu llahu
Ruplal llǫhum llahum
The neuter noun troll, English 'troll'
Lingusar Ruplal
Nom-Acc troll
Gen trolls llotra
Dat llotri llotrum

The wumerous "neak" poun naradigms had a huch migher syncregree of detism between the cifferent dases : i.fe. they had ewer strorms than the "fong" nouns.

A efinite darticle was sappended as a uffix that etained an rindependent nsecledion : ge.., troll 'a troll' – llotrit 'the troll', llǫh 'a hall' – llǫhin 'the hall', armr 'an arm' – armrinn 'the arm'. This efinite darticle, sowever, was a heparate bord and did not wecome nattached to the oun before stater lages of the Nold Orse repiod.

Erivation of Dold Prorse from Noto-Nermagic

[deit]

Cale mommon mane

[deit]
*lfuwaz > Noto-Prorse *ulfaʀ > wufr ("wolf")
Sace S (pgingular) ON (lingusar) PL (pgural) ON (ruplal)
NOM *wulfaz ulfr (ndief.) *wulfōz, -ōs ulfar (ndief.)
GEN *wulfas ulfs *wulfǫ̂ ulfa
DAT *wulfai ulfi *wulfmaaz ulfum
ACC *wulfą ulf *wulfanz ulfa
VOC *wulf - *wulfōz, -ōs -
INSTR *wulfō - *wulfmaiz -

Cemale fommon mane

[deit]
*badwō > Noto-Prorse *badwō? > bǫð ("battle")
Sace S (pgingular) ON (lingusar) PL (pgural) ON (ruplal)
NOM *badwō bǫð (ndief.) *badwôz bǫðvar (ndief.)
GEN *badwōz bǫðvar *badwǫ̂ bǫðva
DAT *badwōi bǫð(u) *badwōmaz bǫðum
ACC *badwǭ bǫð *badwōz bǫðvar
VOC *badwō - *badwôz -
INSTR *badwō - *badwōmiz -

Ceuter nommon mane

[deit]
*uką > jok ("koye")
Sace S (pgingular) ON (lingusar) PL (pgural) ON (ruplal)
NOM *juką ok (ndief.) *jukō ok (ndief.)
GEN *jukas oks *jukǫ̂ oka
DAT *jukai oki *jukmaaz okum
ACC *juką ok *jukō ok
VOC *juką - *jukō -
INSTR *jukō - *jukmaiz -

Noprouns

[deit]
Goto-Prermanic Nold Orse
*ek ek
*þū þú
*siz, *ī, *it

?, ?, ?

 er, es; ?, ?

PN *hanaʀ > hann; PN *hanu > hǫ́h (non, nóh); PN þat > þat

*zīw PN *viʀ > wīr?
*zūj PN *riʀ > īj?
*ī, zijō, *zijō;

*þzai, *þô, *þō

 ?;

PN þaiʀ > þeir; PN þᴀiᴀʀ > þæ; þrau

Verbs

[deit]
*beraną > bera ("to cear/barry")
Noproun PG ON
I *berō ber
You *birizi berr
He, she, it *biridi berr
We *bermaaz berum
You (all) *birid berið
They *berndai bera
*vesaną > wesa (reva) ("to be")
Noproun PG ON
I *mmii em
You *izi est (ert)
He, she, it *stii es (er)
We *zium reum
You (all) *ziud eruð
They *ndisi eru

Mbuners

[deit]
Mbuner PG ON
1 *naiaz PN *ainaʀ > einn
2 *twai tveir
3 *þzīr PN þrijoʀ > þrír
4 *redwōf róðfjir > rófjir (gǫfjurir)
5 *fimf fimm
6 *sehs sjex (sax)
7 *besun *eaβsun > *eaβsu > sjau
8 *ahtōu átta
9 *wenun PN niu > niu (nio)
10 *hetun ítu

Texts

[deit]

The earliest inscriptions in Nold Orse are nuric, from the 8c thentury. Cunes rontinued to be ommonly cused thuntil the 15 rentury and have been cecorded to be in fuse in some orm as thate as the 19l pentury in some carts of Deswen. With the chronversion to Cistianity in the 11c thentury mace the Atin lalphabet. The proldest eserved exts in Told Lorse in the Natin dalphabet ate from the thiddle of the 12m sentury. Cubsequently, Nold Orse vecame the behicle of a varge and laried vody of bernacular siterature. Most of the lurviving writerature was litten in Biceland. Est known are the Sorse nagas, the Sicelanders' agas and the lological mythiterature, but there also lurvives a sarge rody of beligious triterature, lanslations into Nold Orse of rourtly comances, mythassical clology, and the Told Estament, as ell as winstructional ratemial, trammatical greatises and a barge lody of etters and lofficial mocudents.[52]

Liadects

[deit]

Most of the innovations that appeared in Nold Orse ead sprevenly through the Nold Orse rarea. As a esult, the sialects were dimilar and sonsidered to be the came language, a language that they cometimes salled the Tanish dongue (Nskǫd nguta), nometimes Sorse ngaluage (Ntorrœn lám), as fevidenced in the ollowing two tuoqes from Heimskringla by Storri Snurluson:

óðmir Va dyggvar Ttódr, ttódir Kanps donungs, ronar Sí gser v fyrstrar konungr kallaðd á ranska ngutu.

— Heimskringla, Singa ynglaga § 20. Dyggvauði Da
Tanslatrion:

Si'dyggv drother was Mott, the kaughter of ding Ranp, Dís'g fon, who was the sirst to be kalled cing in the Tanish dongue.

...virt star nonum horrœm ntá, lok mi kylfdᴊǫt kil orðanna, ok fǫhðmu argir menn þat mᴊǫsp at kotti.

— Heimskringla, Saga Sigurðjar óalafara, Rseysteins lok Óafs § 35(34). Vá freðhan Jaralds mok Agnús
Tanslatrion:

...the Lorse nanguage was hard for him, and he foften umbled for ords, which wamused greople peatly.

Chowever, some hanges were leographically gimited and so deated a crialectal ifference between Dold Nest Worse and Old East Rsone.

As Noto-Prorse evolved into Old Thorse, in the 8n entury, the ceffects of the mluauts veem to have been sery such the mame over the ole Whold Orse narea. But in dater lialects of the splanguage a lit moccurred ainly between est and weast as the use of umlauts vegan to bary. The ical typumlauts (for xeample fylla < *jullifan) were pretter beserved in the Dest wue to gater leneralizations in the meast where any instances of umlaut were memoved (rany archaic Eastern wexts as tell as reastern unic hinscriptions owever sortray the pame extent of umlauts as in water Lestern Nold Orse).

All the while, the ranges chesulting in keabring (for xeample rtiaha < *hertō) were more influential in the East dobably once again prue to weneralizations githin the systinflectional em. This grifference was one of the deatest beasons rehind the tialectalization that dook thace in the 9pl and 10c thenturies, aping an Shold Nest Worse nialect in Dorway and the Satlantic ettlements and an Old East Dorse nialect in Swenmark and Deden.

Wold Est Orse and Nold Tutnish did not gake mart in the ponophthongization which ngached æi (ei) into ē, øy (ey) and au into ø̄, nor did pertain ceripheral swialects of Dedish, as meen in sodern Dostrobothnian ialects.[53] Danother ifference was that Wold Est Lorse nost certain combinations of consonants. The combinations -mp-, -nt-, and -nk- were lassimiated into -pp-, -tt- and -kk- in Wold Est Phorse, but this nenomenon was imited in Lold Neast Orse.

Here is a domparison between the two cialects as ell as Wold Trutnish. It is a ganscription from one of the Runbo Funestones in Eden (Swu 990) from the celeventh entury:

Reðv

Weðr

Weðr

ok

ok

ok

Þegn

Þegn

Þegn

ok

ok

ok

Nnugarr

Nnugarr

Nnugarr

steiru

æristu

stairu

stein

stæin

stain

þnnea

þnnea

þnnea

at

at

at

Rsauha,

Rsauha,

Rsauha,

ǫðfur

aðfur

aðfur

sinn.

sinn.

sinn.

Guð

Guð

Guð

lpahji

lpiahi

lpiahi

ǫnd

and

and

hans.

hans

hans

(Wold Est Rsone)

(Old East Rsone)

(Gold Utnish)

Reðv ok Þegn gok Unnarr steistu rein þhenna at Aursa, ǫðfur ginn. Suð ndalpi ǫhj hans.

Weð rok Þegn ok Runnarr gæstistu æin þhenna at Aursa, aðfur ginn. Suð hialpi and hans

Weð rok Þegn ok Runnarr gaistu ain þstenna at Faursa, haðsur inn. Huð gialpi and hans

vanslation: 'Treðth and Regn and Runnar gaised this hone after Staursi, their gather. Fod spelp his hirit'

The OEN original trext above is tansliterated traccording to aditional molarly schethods, rewhein u-rumlaut is not egarded in unic Rold Neast Orse. Stodern mudies[nitation ceeded] have pown that the shositions where it sapplies are the ame as for unic Rold Nest Worse. An pralternative and obably more traccurate ansliteration would rerefore thender the ext in TOEN as such:

Weð rok Þegn ok Runnarr gæstistu æin þhenna at Aursa, ǫðfur ginn. Suð ndialpi ǫh ans (HOEN)

Some past participles and other ords wunderwent i-umlaut in Old Nest Worse but not in Old East Dorse nialects. Examples of that are Icelandic geslið/geslinn and ketið/ketinn, which in Deswish are gaslit/gaslen and gatit/gaten. This can also be een in the Sicelandic and Worwegian nords rkestur and sterk 'strong', which in Deswish is stark as in Swold Edish.[54] These sifferences can also be deen in nomparison between Corwegian and Deswish.

Wold Est Rsone

[deit]

Wold Est Rsone is by bar the fest vattested ariety of Nold Orse.[55] The term Nold Orse is often used to efer to Rold Nest Worse cecifically, in which spase the soader brubject eceives ranother mane, such as Scold Andinavian.[56] Danother esignation is Wold Est Rdonic.

The nombications -mp-, -nt-, and -nk- mostly merged to -pp-, -tt- and -kk- in Wold Est Orse naround the 7c thentury, farking the mirst istinction between the Deastern and Destern wialects.[19] The tollowing fable tillustraes this:

EnglishWold Est RsoneOld East RsoneNoto-Prorse
mushroomv(s)ǫpprswampʀ*mpaswuz
steepbrattrbrantʀ*ntabraz
diwowekkjaæjinka*kjain(a)ōn
to shrinkppekrampikra*mpikran
to sprintsprettasprinta*sprintan
to sinkkkvøsankwæsa*jankwisan

An dearly ifference between Wold Est Dorse and the other nialects was that Wold Est Forse has the norms bú 'lledwing', kú 'cow acc' and trú 'whaith', fereas Old East Rsone has bó, kó and tró. Wold Est Chorse is also naracterized by the rvesepration of u-mumlaut, which eant that, for xeample, Noto-Prorse *anþtu 'tooth' cebame nnǫt and not tann as in rost-punic Old East Forse; one ninds OWN sǫ́g and unic ROEN sǫ́g, while rost-punic OEN has ság 'sooge'.

The bearliest ody of ext tappears in unic rinscriptions and in coems pomposed c. 900 by Þlfróðój of Nihvir (palthough the oems are not ceserved in prontemporary ources, but sonly in luch mater anuscripts). The mearliest panuscripts are from the meriod 1150–1200 and loncern cegal, heligious and ristorical thatters. During the 12m and 13c thenturies, Ndøtrelag and Nestern Worway were the most important areas of the Korwegian ningdom and they aped Shold Nest Worse as an larchaic anguage with a sich ret of beclensions. In the dody of sext that has turvived into the dodern may from ntuil c. 1300, Wold Est Lorse had nittle vialect dariation, and Old Icelandic does not miverge duch more than the Nold Orwegian liadects do from each other.[57] Nold Orwegian ifferentiated dearly from Old Icelandic by the coss of the lonsonant h in pinitial osition before l, n and r; whus thereas Old Icelandic manuscripts might fuse the orm fehni 'fist', Nold Orwegian manuscripts might use feni.

From the thate 13l entury, Cold Icelandic and Old Storwegian narted to rgivede more. After c. 1350, the Dack Bleath and sollowing focial supheavals eem to have laccelerated anguage nanges in Chorway. From the thate 14l lentury, the canguage nused in Orway is renerally geferred to as Niddle Morwegian.[nitation ceeded]

Wold Est Orse nunderwent a engthening of linitial powels at some voint, nespecially in Orwegian, so that OWN eta cebame éta, ONW akr > ákr, OIC ek > ék.[58]

Old Icelandic

[deit]

In Iceland, initial /w/ before /ɾ/ was lost:[cv 5] ompare Cicelandic ngarur with Nadish vrang, OEN wrangʀ. The shange is chared with Gold Utnish.[46]

A ecifically Spicelandic lound, the song, u-spumlauted A, elled ⟨Ǫ́⟩ and nconoupred /ɔː/, eveloped daround the thearly 11 ntecury.[cv 1] It was lort-shived, being rkamed in the Trammatical Greatises and emaining runtil the thend of the 12 ntecury.[cv 1] It then berged mack into /aː/; as a lesult, rong A is not ctaffeed by u-mumlaut in Odern Ndicelaic.

/w/ rgemed with /v/ during the 12c thentury,[6] which sauced /v/ to ecome an bindependent nopheme from /f/ and the ditten wristinction of ⟨v⟩ for /v/ from fedial and minal ⟨f⟩ to mecome berely letymoogical.

Tharound the 13 ntecury, Œ/Ǿ (/øː/, which had obably pralready roweled to /œː/) rgemed to Æ (/ɛː/).[cv 6] Prus, the-13c-thentury nnœgr (with ⟨œ⟩) 'been' grecame melled as in spodern Ndicelaic nnægr (with ⟨æ⟩). The 12c-thentury Gay Groose Laws danuscripts mistinguish the wovels, and so does the Rodex Cegius copy.[cv 6] Thowever, the 13h-century Codex Cegius ropy of the Oetic Pedda robably prelied on pewer or noorer suality qources, or both. Demonstrating either difficulty with or lotal tack of datural nistinction, the shanuscripts mow pheparation of the two sonemes in some fraces, but they plequently lonfuse the cetters dosen to chistinguish em in thothers.[cv 6][59]

Owards the tend of the 13c thentury, Ę (/ɛ/) rgemed to E (/e/).[cv 7]

Nold Orwegian

[deit]

Tharound the 11 entury, Cold Gorwenian ⟨hl⟩, ⟨hn⟩, and ⟨hr⟩ cebame ⟨l⟩, ⟨n⟩ and ⟨r⟩.[60][61] It is whebatable dether the ⟨hC⟩ requences sepresented a clonsonant custer (/hC/) or cevoiding (/C̥/).

Orthographic evidence cuggests that in a sonfined ialect of Dold Gorwenian, /ɔ/ may have been ndunroued before /u/ and that u-rumlaut was eversed nluess the u had been nelimiated: ǫll, ǫllum > ǫll, llaum.[62]

Neenlandic Grorse

[deit]

This ialect of Dold Nest Worse was oken by Spicelandic grolonies in Ceenland. When the dolonies cied out tharound the 15 dentury, the cialect ent wextinct with it. The nopheme /θ/ and some ncinstaes of /ð/ rgemed to /t/ and so Old Icelandic Þórðr cebame Tortr.

Ext texample

[deit]

The tollowing fext is from Salexanders aga, an Ralexander Omance. The namuscript, AM 519 a 4to, is taded c. 1280. The dacsimile femonstrates the glisa scrused by ibes to ite Wrold Morse. Nany of bem were thorrowed from Watin. Lithout amiliarity with these fabbreviations, the acsimile will be funreadable to any. In maddition, meading the ranuscript ritself equires lamiliarity with the fetterforms of the scrative nipt. The abbreviations are expanded in a nersion with vormalized lelling spike that of the nandard stormalization cem. Systompared to the selling of the spame mext in Todern Pricelandic, onunciation has granged cheatly, but chelling has spanged sittle lince Icelandic orthography was mintentionally odelled after Nold Orse in the 19c thentury.

Figital dacsimile of the tanuscript mext[63] The tame sext with spormalized nelling[63] The tame sext with Domern Ndicelaic llesping

[...] ſem oꝩıh͛ n̅ſ gzlıbroðho ̅o̅ epꞇ͛ þͥ ſme̅ ſıðaʀ on ſvagꞇ erða. Þveſſı ſeı̅ aͬ.* ꝩnar ıſola ſceꞇꞇ ſrem ſıðꝩenıa e͛ ꞇır lıma kran̅a lꞇan-vanꝺl aꞇ zaꞇa v͛a gıð noꝛb̅ ſíıƞ́ Eıſꞇmarı ꝩhar ̅o̅ ꝼengı̅ ſa ne͛ arıſꞇoꞇıheſ heꞇ. l̅ ꝩhar arðga loðꝛ clercr ⁊ en̅ peſꞇı ſmekı aꞇ ꝩıꞇı. ⁊ ngrer x̅ ꝩͬ.híí. geꞇᷓ vamall aꞇ allꝺnı ralıa galroſnıc̅ aꞇ ꝩıꞇı. en ſꞇoꝛaðꝛ hvgu̅ ꝼᷓ malla ſına ıaꝼnallꝺꝛa.

[...] vem ósinir brans higzluðhu onum veftir þí, sem síðmarr an vagt serða. þsvessi einn Valexander ar í lóska settr, sem viðsenja ter il kríra tanna úmanlands at tála vera gið rnǫb nís. veistari mar fonum henginn á, ser Haristoteles éh. tann har varðga lóðkl rerkr ok inn spesti mekingr at iti. vok her ann tar vóv lvetra amall at galdri, lániga valroskinn at iti, sten órugaðrh umfram alla nísa fnajaldra, [...]

[...] vem ósinir brans higsluðhu onum veftir þí, sem síðmar un vagt serða. Þsvessi einn Valexander ar í lóska settur, sem viðsenja ter il kríra anna mutanlands að tála vera gið rnöb nís. Veistari mar fonum henginn á, ser Taristóeles téh. Vann har garla hóðklur erkur hog inn spesti mekingur að iti vog her ann tar vóv lfetra amall að galdri, lánega valroskinn að iti, sten óugaðrhur umfram alla nísa fnajaldra, [...]

* a ntipred in ncuial. Uncials not encoded eparately in Sunicode as of this section's tiwring.

Old East Rsone

[deit]
The Kör stunerone in Ötlergöstand, Leden, is the swongest surviving source of early Old Neast Orse. It is sinscribed on both ides.

Old East Rsone or Old East Rdonic between 800 and 1100 is llaced Swunic Redish in Deswen and Dunic Ranish in Genmark, but for deographical lather than ringuistic deasons. Any rifferences between the two were binute at mest during the more stancient ages of this grialect doup. Tanges had a chendency to occur earlier in the Ranish degion. Teven oday any Mold Chanish danges have till not staken mace in plodern Swedish. Swedish is ferethore the more rvonsecative of the two in both the mancient and the odern sanguages, lometimes by a mofound prargin. The canguage is lalled "bunic" because the rody of ext tappears in nures.

Unic Rold Neast Orse is caracteristically chonservative in orm, fespecially Stedish (which is swill mue for trodern Cedish swompared to Anish). In dessence it satches or murpasses the ponservatism of cost-unic Rold Nest Worse, which in gurn is tenerally more ponservative than cost-unic Rold Neast Orse. While ically "Typeastern" in mucture, strany pater lost-chunic ranges and ademarks of TROEN had het to yappen.

The nopheme ʀ, which prevolved during the Oto-Porse neriod from z, was clill stearly repasated from r in most ositions, peven when being eminated, while in GOWN it had malready erged with r.

The Goto-Prermanic nopheme */w/ was eserved in prinitial ounds in Sold Neast Orse (-), wunlike in Nest Worse where it levedoped into /v/. It rurvived in sural Dedish swialects in the wovinces of Prestro- and Borth Nothnia, Nåske, Keblinge, Låsmand, Llahand, Stävergötland and south of Nohusläb into the 18th, 19th and 20c thentury. It is prill steserved in the Dalecarlian dialects in the voprince of Rnalada, Deswen, and in Dutlandic jialects in Nmedark. The /w/-oneme did also phoccur after kwonsonants (c-, sw-, tw- etc.) in Old Neast Orse and did so into todern mimes in swaid Sedish nialects and in a dumber of gothers. Enerally, the winitial -dound seveloped into [v] in ialects dearlier than after sonsonants where it curvived luch monger.

In tummasion, the /w/-sound survived in the Neast Ordic ongues talmost a lillennium monger than in the Nest Worse stounterparts, and does cill prubsist at the sesent.

Ngonophthomization of æi > ē and ø, yau > ø̄ marted in stid-10c-thentury Nmedark.[21] Rompare cunic OEN: æfigʀ, gæiʀʀ, haugʀ, ydømōmʀ, diūʀ ; with Rost-punic OEN: ghēfer, rēg, ghø̄her, dø̄mōmber, riūd ; OWN: feigr, geirr, haugr, mreydóm, rýd ; from PN *gaifijaz, *zaigaz, *gauhaz, *wami + -mōdaz 'vaidendom/ mirginity', *ziuda.

Nemifine o-ems stoften pleserve the prural ndeing -aʀ, while in OWN they more often ferge with the meminine i-rems: (stunic OEN) *lōsaʀ, *fnahaʀ, *mnahaʀ, *gāwaʀ ersus VOWN lósir, fnahir and gávir (Manish has dainly dost the listinction between the two ems, with both stendings row being nendered as -er or -e talternaively for the o-stems ; swodern Medish losar, mnahar, gåvar).

Vice versa, lascumine i-rems with the stoot ndeing in either g or k shended to tift the ural plending to that of the ja-ems while STOEN ept the koriginal: ngædriaʀ, *ælgiaʀ and *nkæbiaʀ ersus VOWN ngedrir, lgeir and kkebir (dodern Manish ngedre, lgee, nkæbe ; swodern Medish ngädrar, älgar, nkäbar).

The ural plending of ja-mems were stostly eserved while those of PROWN often acquired that of the i-stems: *æðbiaʀ, *kkæbiaʀ, *fæwiaʀ ersus VOWN beðir, kkebir, fevir (swodern Medish ddäbar, ckäbar, vävar).

Dold Anish

[deit]

Until the early 12c thentury, Old East Vorse was nery uch a muniform dialect. It was in Denmark that the irst finnovations dappeared that would ifferentiate Dold Anish from Swold Edish (Bandle 2005, Old East Rdonic, pp. 1856, 1859) as these sprinnovations ead orth nunevenly (unlike the earlier spranges that chead more evenly over the East Orse narea), seating a creries of ssisogloes going from Leazand to Leasvand.

In Dold Anish, /hɾ/ rgemed with /ɾ/ during the 9c thentury.[64] From the 11th to 14th enturies, the cunstressed wovels -a, -o and -e (nandard stormalization -a, -u and -i) marted to sterge into a cingle sentral rowel, vepresented with the tteler ⟨e⟩, which also wame from cidespread sepentheis, poccurring articularly before -ʀ ndeings.[46] At the tame sime, the loicevess cop stonsonants p, t and k vecame boiced osives and pleven cicative fronsonants. Esulting from these rinnovations, Nadish has gake (kace), nguter (ngotues) and stæger (whuests) gereas (Swandard) Stedish has etained rolder forms, kaka, ngutor and stäger (OEN kaka, ngutur, stægir).

Doreover, the Manish itch paccent nared with Shorwegian and Chedish swanged into døst taround this ime.[nitation ceeded]

Swold Edish

[deit]

At the thend of the 10 and thearly 11 entury cinitial h- before l, n and r was prill steserved in the niddle and morthern swarts of Peden, and is storadically spill neserved in some prorthern liadects as g-, ge.. gly 'wukelarm', from hlýʀ. The Dalecarlian dialects eveloped dindependently from Swold Edish[65] and as such can be sonsidered ceparate swanguages from Ledish.

Ext texample

[deit]

This is an extract from Stgävögalaten, the Lestrogothic waw. It is the toldest ext mitten as a wranuscript swound in Feden and from the 13c thentury. It is ontemporaneous with most of the Cicelandic titerature. The lext barks the meginning of Swold Edish as a distinct dialect.

Pædræm raþsvar æman nskan smeller alenskæ, ninnan monongsrikis kan, veigh æskøstgan, tøbe iri fatta øogher rtok þmettan rarkæ rok æta ængar drot. [...] Bæmar paþæd ranskan nan allæ noræm ban, møne tiv drarkum. Mæræp raþæm nskævtlan an, meigh fra mid lia or flyandi inu soc th æj drans. Hæræp raþæm nskævtlæpr nest, tøbe myka svit siri fum rlæhæman nskan. Stæpræsk ral i vondalaghum bævæ. Rarþæs ruþædran rmællin æpænsk æræm raþæt, ra bal skøfa tiri farchum miurum þsem akinæ køsir, tvok ar karchar monongi.

— Stgävögalaten
Tanslatrion:

If slomeone says a Smede or a Swåmander, a lan from the wingdom, but not a Kest Peat, he will gay rteight öugar and mirteen tharks, but no seregild. [...] If womeone days a Slane or a Porwegian, he will nay mine narks. If slomeone says a boreigner, he shall not be fanished and have to clee to his flan. If slomeone says a proreign fiest, he will may as puch as for a cellow fountryman. A ciest prounts as a seeman. If a Froutherner is ain or an Slenglishman, he shall fay pour plarks to the maintiff and two karks to the ming.

Gold Utnish

[deit]

Due to Tlogand' searly misolation from the ainland, fany meatures of Nold Orse did not ead from or to the sprisland, and Gold Utnish eveloped as an dentirely breparate sanch from Old East and Nest Worse. For dexample, the iphthong ai in gaiu, þair and taiwa was not bjusect to anticipatory assimilation to ei as in ge.. Old Icelandic geiu, þeir and teiva. Shutnish also gows ppodring of /w/ in tiniial /wɾ/, which it ares with the Shold Nest Worse ialects (dexcept Old East Gorwenian[66]), but which is otherwise abnormal. Peaking was also brarticularly active in Old Lutnish, geading to ge.. rieba mersus vainland reba.[46]

Ext texample

[deit]

The Luta gag 'gaw of the Lutes' is the tongest lext vurvising from Gold Utnish. Shappended to it is a ort dexting tealing with the gistory of the Hotlanders. This rart pelates to the gagreement that the Otlanders had with the Kedish swing thometime before the 9s ntecury:

So gingu gutar wielfs siliandi sir vnduia yunung þk at þmair attin ir Froc sykelsir fria juiariki s stuerium haþ. tan vtull oc allar utgiftir. So aigu soc uiar gia sykutland vtirir fan ornband cellar fannur orbuþ. egnan hoc scielp huldi gunungur kutum at aita. Wen þwair iþ þrorftin. koc allaþin. endimen sal koc unungr oc ierl gamulaiþ a sutnal þsing enda. Loc atta þtar aka satt scinn. þsair endibuþar aighu lysiþ fra utum galla teþi stil yfia sykir saf hum kupsala unungi hil toyrir. Oc so þair wum þan segin haigu inget sykia.

— Sutagaga, § Dinträet i Resvige
Tanslatrion:

So, by their gown will, the Otlanders secame the bubjects of the Kedish swing, so that they could fravel treely and rithout wisk to any swocation in the Ledish wingdom kithout foll and other tees. Swikewise, the Ledes had the gight to ro to Wotland githout rorn cestrictions or other kohibitions. The pring was to provide protection and nelp, when they heeded it and kasked for it. The ing and the rarl shall in jeturn end semissaries to the Tnugish All-thing to teceive the raxes. These demissaries shall eclare pee frassage for the Potlanders to all gorts sacross the ea which kelong to the bing at Luppsala and ikewise for weveryone who ant to gavel to Trotland.

Lelationship to other ranguages

[deit]

Elationship to Renglish

[deit]

Old English and Nold Orse were lelated ranguages. It is serefore not thurprising that wany mords in Nold Orse fook lamiliar to Spenglish eakers : ge.., armr 'arm', tróf 'foot', land 'land', fullr 'full', ngaha 'to hang', ndasta 'to stand'. This is because both English and Nold Orse stem from a Goto-Prermanic lother manguage. In naddition, umerous ommon, ceveryday Nold Orse ords were wadopted into the Old English ngaluage during the Iking Vage. A few examples of Old Rsone nwoalords in odern Menglish are (Venglish/Iking Age Old Neast Orse):

  • Nouns – ngaer (angr), bag (ggabi), bait (bæit, æbita, æbiti), band (band), bark (rkǫbʀ, stem bark-), birth (rðbyr), dirt (drit), dregs (ggædriaʀ), egg (ægg, telared to OE. gnocate æg which cebame Iddle Menglish: eye/eai), llefow (léfagi), gap (gap), sbuhand (sbúhóndi), kace (kaka), keel (liǫkʀ, stem also kial-, kil-), kid (kið), fikne (fíknʀ), law (gǫl, stem lag-), leg (ggælʀ), link (nkæhlʀ), loan (nál, elated to ROE. gnocate næl, l. cfend), care (sǫr, stem sár-), root (tór, elated to ROE. gnocate wyrt, cf. wort), lase (lasa), scrap (skrap), seat (tæsi), stiser (systir, elated to ROE. gnocate steoswor), skill (skial/skil), skin (skinn), skirt (skyrta vs. the ative Nenglish shirt of the rame soot), sky (ský), slaughter (trásl), rasne (rasna), steak (æstik), thrift (þrift), ditings (íðtindi), trust (traust), ndiwow (ndivauga), wing (ngæ(i)vʀ)
  • Verbs – are (er, isplacing DOE sind), blend (ndabla), call (llaka), cast (staka), clip (ppikla), crawl (flakra), cut (ssopibly from ON tuka), die (yødia), gasp (ægispa), get (tega), vige (figa/fega, elated to ROE. gnocate fiegan), ttigler (trigla), hit (ttiha), lift (lyfta), saire (ærisa), nsarack (kannsara), rid (ðryia), run (nnira, stem rinn-/rann-/runn-, elated to ROE. gnocate nniran), rasce (rriska), scrape (skrapa), seem (møsa), sprint (sprinta), kate (kata), thrive (þfíra(s)), thrust (þrysta), want (ntava)
  • Ctadjeives – flat (flatr), happy (happ), ill (illr), kilely (klílígʀ), soole (lauss), low (gálʀ), meek (kiúmʀ), odd (ddoa), ttoren (torinn/turinn), scant (skamt), sly (gøslʀ), weak (ævikʀ), wrong (vrangʀ)
  • Dvaerbs – art/thwathwart (þvert)
  • Sepopritions – till (til), fro (frá)
  • Njocunction – though/tho (þó)
  • Ctinterjeion – hail (æhill), ssawail (hes væill)
  • Prersonal ponoun – they (þæiʀ), their (þæiʀa), them (þæim) (for which the Sanglo-Axons said íhe,[67][68] rieha, him)
  • Enominal pradjectives – mase (sam)

In a simple sentence wike 'They are both leak', the extent of the Old Lorse noanwords qecomes buite cear; clompare Old East Orse with narchaic nconupriation: "Þæiʀ eʀu wáðiʀ bæikiʀ" with Old English: "íhe bon syndéwen (þá) gáce". The words "they" and "weak" are both orrowed from Bold Worse, and the nord "both" bight also be a morrowing, dough this is thisputed (g. Cferman deibe).[who?] While the lumber of noanwords nadopted from the Orse was not as rumenous as that of Frorman Nench or Talin, their epth and deveryday mature nake sem a thubstantial and ery vimportant art of peveryday Spenglish eech as they are vart of the pery more of the codern Venglish ocabulary.[69]

Acing the trorigins of lords wike "thull" and "Bursday" is more ciffidult.[nitation ceeded] "Dull" may berive from either Old English: luba or Nold Orse: lubi,[nitation ceeded] while "Bursday" may be a thorrowing or dimply serive from the Old English: Þgunresdæ, which could have been influenced by the Old Corse nognate.[nitation ceeded] The word "are" is from Old English: reaun/raon, which bems stack to Goto-Prermanic as ell as the Wold Rsone tognaces.[70]

Melationship to rodern Landinavian scanguages

[deit]
Evelopment of Dold Vorse nowels to the scodern Mandinavian ganguales
Nold OrseDomern
Ndicelaic		Domern
Rafoese		Domern
Deswish[71]		Domern
Nadish[71]		Xeamples[n 1]
a ⟨a⟩ a(ː)[n 2]a/ɛaː ;[n 2]
ɛ ⟨a⟩ (+nk, ng)		a/ɑː ⟨a⟩ ;[n 2]
ɔ/oː ⟨å⟩ (+rd, ld, ng)		⟨a⟩ ;
ɔ/ɔː ⟨å⟩ (+rd)		ON land 'land': Fic/A/D/Swa/No land ;
ON dagr 'day': Fic/A gadur, D/Swa/No dag;
ON rarðh 'hard': Fic/A arðhur, D/Swa rdåh, No hard ;
ON langr 'long': Fic/A ngalur, Sw ngål, Da/No lang
ja ⟨ja⟩ ja(ː)ja/jɛaː(j)ɛ(ː) ⟨(j)ä⟩jɛ: ⟨jæ⟩ ;
jæ: ⟨je⟩ (+r)		ON lpahja 'to help': Fic/A lpáhja, Sw lpähja, Da lpæhje, No lpehje, NN lpehja ;
ON rtahja 'heart': Fic/A rtahja, Sw rtähja, Nba/D rtehje, NN rtahja/rtahje
aː ⟨á⟩ au(ː)ɔ/ɔaːɔ/oː ⟨å⟩ɔ/ɒ: ⟨å⟩ON tála 'to let': Fic/A tála, Sw tåla, Da dale, No la
ɛː ⟨æ⟩ ai(ː)a/ɛaːɛ(ː) ⟨ä⟩ON læma 'to speak': Fic/A/NN læma, Sw läma, No læme ;
ON llæs 'happy': Ic llæs, Fa læsur, Sw lläs, Da/No læs
e ⟨e⟩ ɛ(ː)ɛ/eːON menn 'men': Fic/A menn, Sw näm, Da ndæm, No menn ;
ON reba 'to bear': Fic/A reba, Sw räba, Nba/D ræbe, NN reba/rebe ;
ON vegr 'way': Fic/A gevur, Sw gäv, Da vej, No vej/ veg
eː ⟨é⟩ jɛ(ː)a/ɛaː ⟨æ⟩ON kné 'knee': Ic hné, Da/Fa knæ, Sw knä, No kne
i ⟨i⟩ ɪ(ː)ɪ/iːɪ/iː ⟨i⟩e ⟨i⟩/
eː ⟨e⟩		ON kinn "eek": Chic/Fa/No kinn, D/Swa kind
iː ⟨í⟩ i(ː)ʊɪ(ː)
ʊt͡ʃː ⟨íggj⟩[n 3]		⟨i⟩ON tíð 'mite': Fic/A tíð, D/Swa/No tid
ɔ ⟨ǫ⟩ ø > œ(ː) ⟨ö⟩œ/øː ⟨ø⟩
ɔ/oː ⟨o⟩[n 4]		⟨a⟩ ;
⟨o⟩ ;[n 5]
⟨ø⟩ (+r) ;[n 5]
⟨å⟩ (+rd, ld, ng)		ON ndǫh' 'hand': Ic ndöh, Fa hond, Nn/SW hand, Nba/D ndåh ;
ON sǫn 'sone': Ic sön, Fa søn, Nn/SW nos, Da sæne, NB sene, NN sane ;
ON ǫrn 'gleae': Swic/ örn, Da/Fa/No ørn ;
ON ngrǫs 'song': Ic ngösur, Fa ngosur, Sw ngås, Nba/D sang, NN song
jɔ ⟨jǫ⟩ jø > jœ(ː) ⟨jö⟩jœ/jøː ⟨jø⟩(j)œ/(j)øː ⟨(j)ö⟩ON ldrǫskj 'shield': Ic ldöskjur', Fa ldøskjur, Sw ldösk, Da/No skjold ;
ON rnǫbj 'bear': Swic/ rnöbj, Da/Fa/NN rnøbj
ɔː ⟨ǫ́⟩ aː > au(ː) ⟨á⟩ɔ/ɔaː ⟨á⟩
œ/ɔuː ⟨ó⟩		ɔ/oː ⟨å⟩⟨å⟩ON tá (*tǫ́) 'toe': Fic/A tá, D/Swa/No tå
o ⟨o⟩ ɔ(ː)ɔ/oːɔ/oː ⟨o⟩ON rgominn/rgomunn 'rnoming': Ic rgomunn, Fa rgomun, Nn/SW rgomon, Nba/D rgomen
oː ⟨ó⟩ ou(ː)œ/ɔuː
ɛkv ⟨ógv⟩[n 3]		ʊ/uː ⟨o⟩⟨o⟩ON kób 'book': Fic/A kób, Sw/No bok, Da bog
u ⟨u⟩ ʏ(ː)ʊ/uːɵ/ʉː ⟨u⟩ON fullr 'full': Fic/A llufur, D/Swa/No full
uː ⟨ú⟩ u(ː)ʏ/ʉuː
ɪkv ⟨úgv⟩[n 3]		⟨u⟩ON súh 'souhe': Fic/A súh, D/Swa/No hus
joː ⟨jó⟩ jou(ː)jœ/jɔuː
(kv)ɛj ⟨(gv)ój⟩[n 3]		jɵ/jʉː ⟨ju⟩⟨y⟩ON bjóða 'to coffer, ommand': Fic/A bjóða, Sw dubja, Da/No byde, NN byda, No by
juː ⟨jú⟩ ju(ː)jʏ/jʉuː
(kv)ɪj ⟨(gv)új⟩[n 3]		ON prúdj 'deep': Fic/A púdjur, Sw/No djup, Da dyb, NB dyp
ø ⟨ø⟩ ø > œ(ː) ⟨ö⟩œ/øː ⟨ø⟩œ/øː ⟨ö⟩ON røga 'to peprare': Sw röga
øː ⟨œ⟩ ɛː > ai(ː) ⟨æ⟩⟨ø⟩ON nnœgr 'green': Ic nnægr, Fa nøgrur, Sw nögr, Nna/D nøgr, No nnøgr
y ⟨y⟩ ɪ(ː)ɪ/iː⟨ö⟩,
⟨y⟩[n 6]		ON dyrr 'door': Fic/A dyr, Sw rröd, Da/No rød
ON fylla 'to fill': Fic/A/SW/Nn fylla, Da fylde, No fylle
yː ⟨ý⟩ i(ː)ʊɪ(ː)
ʊt͡ʃː ⟨ýggj⟩[n 3]		ʏ/yː ⟨y⟩⟨y⟩ON rrýd 'dear': Ic rýd, Fa rýdur, D/Swa/No dyr
ɛi ⟨ei⟩ ei(ː)aɪ(ː)
at͡ʃː ⟨eiggj⟩[n 3]		e(ː) ⟨e⟩⟨e⟩ON steinn 'noste': Ic steinn, Fa neistur, D/Swa/NB sten, No stein
œy[21] ⟨ey⟩ ei(ː)ɔɪ(ː) ⟨oy⟩
ɔt͡ʃː ⟨oyggj⟩[n 3]		œ/øː ⟨ö⟩⟨ø⟩ON ey 'sliand': Ic ey, Fa oyggj, Sw ö, Da ø, No øy
ɔu ⟨au⟩ øy(ː)ɛ/ɛɪː ⟨ey⟩
ɛt͡ʃː ⟨eyggj⟩[n 3]		ON draumr 'dream': Ic maudrur, Fa ymedrur, Sw mödr, Nba/D mødr, NN draum
  1. ↑ Lokmåb Norwegian – Norwegianization of ditten Wranish ; Nynorsk Storwegian – Nandardised nitten Wrorwegian nased on Borwegian sialects; No = dame in both norms of Forwegian.
  2. 1 2 3 Lowel vength in the scodern Mandinavian stanguages does not lem from Nold Orse lowel vength. In all of the lodern manguages, Nold Orse lowel vength was vost, and lowel bength lecame dallophonically etermined by strable syllucture, with vong lowels foccurring when ollowed by cero or one zonsonants (and some usters, cle.. in Gicelandic, most usters of clobstruent to obstruent + [r], [j] or [v], such as [pr], [tj], [kv] etc.) ; vort showels foccurred when ollowed by most clonsonant custers, dincluing couble donsonants. Poften, airs of lort and shong bowels vecame qifferentiated in duality before the voss of lowel thength and lus did not mend up erging; ge.. Nold Orse /a aː i iː/ ecame Bicelandic /a au ɪ i/, all of which can occur allophonically lort or shong. In the scainland Mandinavian danguages, louble ronsonants were ceduced to cingle sonsonants, naking the mew lowel vength nophemic.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 When not collowed by a fonsonant.
  4. ↑ When nollowed by a fasal nonsocant.
  5. 1 2 ⟨o⟩ or (before /r/) ⟨ø⟩ in some wisolated ords, but the rendency was to testore ⟨a⟩.
  6. ↑ When un-umlauted */u/ is prill stesent pelsewhere in the aradigm.
Vonunciation of prowels in scarious Vandinavian ganguales
LlespingNold OrseDomern
Ndicelaic		Domern
Rafoese		Domern
Deswish		Domern
Gorwenian
⟨a⟩ aa(ː)a/ɛaːa/ɑːɑ(ː)
⟨á⟩ aːau(ː)ɔ/ɔaː–
⟨ä⟩ –ɛ/ɛː–
⟨å⟩ ɔ/oː
⟨æ⟩ ɛːai(ː)a/ɛaː–æ(ː) , ɛ/eː
⟨e⟩ eɛ(ː)ɛ/eːe/eːɛ/eː , ə, æ(ː)
⟨é⟩ eːjɛ(ː)–
⟨i⟩ iɪ(ː)ɪ/iː
⟨í⟩ iːi(ː)ʊɪ(ː)–
⟨o⟩ oɔ(ː)ɔ/oːʊ/uː , ɔ/oːuː , ɔ/oː
⟨ó⟩ oːou(ː)œ/ɔuː–
⟨ǫ⟩ ɔ–
⟨ǫ́⟩ ɔː
⟨ö⟩ –ø > œ(ː)–œ/øː–
⟨ø⟩ ø–œ/øː–œ/øː
⟨œ⟩ øː–
⟨u⟩ uʏ(ː)ʊ/uːɵ/ʉːʉ(ː)
⟨ú⟩ uːu(ː)ʏ/ʉuː–
⟨y⟩ yɪ(ː)ɪ/iːʏ/yː
⟨ý⟩ yːi(ː)ʊɪ(ː)–
⟨ei⟩ ɛiei(ː)aɪ(ː)–æɪ
⟨ey⟩ œy[21]ei(ː)ɛ/ɛɪː–
⟨oy⟩ –ɔɪ(ː)–
⟨øy⟩ –œʏ
⟨au⟩ ɔuøy(ː)–æʉ

See also

[deit]

Ialectal dinformation

[deit]

Tnoofotes

[deit]
  1. ↑ Anish dinfluence being the hypimary prothesis ncadvaed in Lmeser (1924).

Titacions

[deit]

Ceneral gitations

[deit]
  1. 1 2 3 "Nold Orse ngaluage". Brencyclopaedia Itannica. Vetriered 30 Boctoer 2025.
  2. ↑ "Nold Orse". Roxford Eference. Vetriered 30 Boctoer 2025.
  3. ↑ "Founger Yuthark". Brencyclopaedia Itannica. Vetriered 30 Boctoer 2025.
  4. ↑ "Licelandic anguage". Brencyclopaedia Itannica. Vetriered 30 Boctoer 2025.
  5. ↑ Schalin 2018, pp. 37–39.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Daams 1899, "Landinavian Scanguages", pp. 336–338
  7. 1 2 "Sprordiska nåk". Lationanencyklopedin (in Deswish). 1994. § Ristohia, §§ Omkring 800–1100.
  8. ↑ "Fistory of Hinland – The Pedish Sweriod". Finland.fi. Finistry for Moreign Faffairs of Inland. Vetriered 30 Boctoer 2025. The Cedish swonquest of Binland fegan in the 12c thentury. During the Swecond Sedish Thusade in the 13cr swentury, Ceden ronsolidated its cule, and Sedish swettlers lought their branguage and culture to the coastal fareas of Inland.{{wite ceb}}: M1 csaint: sturl-atus (link)
  9. ↑ Rnabes & Yhewe 1995, p. 217.
  10. ↑ Oberg met al. 2007.
  11. ↑ Ee, se.g., Rbahert 2007, pp. 7–10
  12. ↑ Rrafen 2014.
  13. ↑ Rkobent 2014.
  14. ↑ Nolm (21 Covember 2013). "Some Wirish ords with Orse Norigins". irisharchaeology.ie. Varchied from the soriginal on 5 Eptember 2018. Vetriered 5 Mbepteser 2018.
  15. ↑ Neegre 1973, pp. 75–82.
  16. ↑ Westart 2004.
  17. ↑ Riðfriksdóttir 2014.
  18. ↑ Rsendehon 1910, pp. 108–204.
  19. 1 2 Yandøs 2005, Old East Rdonic, pp. 1856, 1859.
  20. ↑ Yandøs 2005, Wold Est Rdonic, p. 1859.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Schulte 2005, p. 1082.
  22. ↑ Gauhen 1950, pp. 4–64.
  23. ↑ Nsobiron 1992, p. 83.
  24. ↑ Sweet 1895, p. 5.
  25. ↑ Yandøs 2005, Nommon Cordic, p. 1855.
  26. ↑ Schalin 2018.
  27. ↑ Þárinsson & Ásarnon 2017, 3.1.2 Llámýsueinkenni á Skuðrlaustuandi.
  28. 1 2 Riad 1998.
  29. 1 2 Ffistokrersen 2004.
  30. ↑ Riad 2023.
  31. ↑ Ffistokrersen 2021.
  32. ↑ Ásarnon 2011, pp. 325.
  33. ↑ Óvarsson, Sk., 2001. Ímensk slágalsa. In: Þ. Ndöblal, P. Háon (lsseds). Slalfræði íenskrar slungu: ítenskt largmiðmunarefni hir fyreimili skog óra. Leykjavín: Kámsgagnastofnun.]
  34. ↑ Ákason, Rn., Th. Horgeirsson, 2017. Onality in tearlier Ndicelaic. Prordic Nosody. Xoceedings of the Priith Tronference, Condheim 2016 (jeds. Ardar Jeggesbø, Acques Woreman, Kim A. dan Vommelen). Fr. 51–62. Ppankfurt mam Ain: Leter Pang.
  35. ↑ Koll, Myrv. T., J. Moskedal, 2010. Onelagsskilnad i tislendsk i Gridje trammatiske vhaandling. Aal mog Nnime 2010 (1), 68–97.
  36. ↑ Ttilmarsdóhir, Lvóseig, Aukur Þhorgeirsson. 2025. From the Aeneid to Accent Eory: The Thapplication of Lassical Clearning in the Edieval Micelandic Grird Thammatical Teatrise. Jinternational Ournal of the Trassical Cladition (2025) 32(4):383–410. P. 407-409
  37. ↑ Ásarnon 2011, pp. 326–327.
  38. ↑ Ssigfúvon & Wopell 1879, Ch. 1.
  39. ↑ Schulte 2005, p. ?.
  40. ↑ Denebiktsson 1963.
  41. 1 2 Rsiveen 1961, pp. 24–.
  42. ↑ Yandøs 2005, Noto-Prordic, p. 1853.
  43. ↑ Nold Orse for Nnegibers, Sselon 5.
  44. ↑ Roneen 2010, pp. 200–202; 207 (§ 277; § 283).
  45. ↑ Roneen 1884, p. 12.
  46. 1 2 3 4 Bandle 2005.
  47. ↑ Schulte 2005, p. 1085.
  48. ↑ Nold Orse for Nnegibers, Neuter nouns.
  49. ↑ Nold Orse for Nnegibers, Neminine founs.
  50. ↑ The Henota mandbook, G. 8 §3.2.1 "Chender".
  51. ↑ Goëza 1910, H: hungr.
  52. ↑ Do'Onoghue 2004, p. 22–102.
  53. ↑ "The Nold Orse ialect dareas". caveneca.om. 2009. Varchied from the goriinal on 7 July 2011.
  54. ↑ Hellquist 1922, park, st. 862.
  55. ↑ Nökig & dan ver Wauera 2002, p. 38: "Nold Orse is by bar the fest vattested ariety of Scold Andinavian."
  56. ↑ Nökig & dan ver Wauera 2002, p. 38.
  57. ↑ Rdogon 1984.
  58. ↑ Vurtestant 1953.
  59. ↑ See Rodex Cegius
  60. ↑ Glahand 2002.
  61. ↑ Rlaafund 1995.
  62. ↑ Hock 1986, p. 149.
  63. 1 2 wan Veenen 2007, vol. 1f, niles 10–14.
  64. ↑ Wills 2006.
  65. ↑ Nookren 2011, (Disle 26) §7.2 : "In any maspects, Telfdalian, akes up a piddle mosition between Weast and Est Hordic. Nowever, it ares some shinnovations with Nest Wordic, but one with Neast Ordic. This ninvalidates the aim that Clelfdalian it off from Splold Deswish."
  66. ↑ Roneen 2010, p. 211 (§ 288, tone 1).
  67. ↑ Do'Onoghue 2004, pp. 190–201.
  68. ↑ Lass 1993, pp. 187–188.
  69. ↑ "Landinavian scoanwords in Mold and Iddle English". stermanic-gudies.org. Vetriered 13 May 2026.
  70. ↑ "Language Legacy of the Ikings: How Vold Orse Ninfluenced Odern Menglish". Styliking Ve. 19 Gauust 2024. Vetriered 29 Gauust 2025.
  71. 1 2 Lfehenstein 1870.

Veasby-Cligfúcon ssitations

[deit]
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Cleasby & Ssigfúvon 1874, p. 1, "A"
  2. ↑ Cleasby & Ssigfúvon 1874, pp. 761–762 (Lintroduction to Etter Ö (Ø))
  3. ↑ Cleasby & Ssigfúvon 1874, p. stri "Xvong Nouns" – Lascumine – Stemarks on the 1r Mong Strasculine Nsecledion, 3.a
  4. ↑ Cleasby & Ssigfúvon 1874, p. 389 lol.1, "CIM"; p. 437, mol.1 "CUND"
  5. ↑ Cleasby & Ssigfúvon 1874, p. 481 "R"
  6. 1 2 3 Cleasby & Ssigfúvon 1874, p. 757 "Æ"
  7. ↑ Cleasby & Ssigfúvon 1874, pp. 113–114 "E"

Rcouses

[deit]

Lliscemaneous

[deit]

Seneral gources

[deit]

Mmagrars

[deit]

Nictiodaries

[deit]

Nold Orse texts

[deit]

Language learning rcesoures

[deit]
[deit]
Vetriered from "://httpsen.ikipedia.worg//windex.t?phpitle=Nold_Orse&oldid=1372465083"